Category: 500words

Protein Deamination is Our Damnation

Do you eat a protein-rich diet? Do you take any protein supplements because you are trying to build big muscles in the gym?

Have you ever met or known someone with a protein deficiency? Someone who truly had a protein deficiency? That’s because the only people who ever suffer from insufficient protein have to live in a part of the world where food is scarce or non-existent. In places like Sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia, and Central America. It is usually prevalent in children and newborns. During times of hunger induced by natural calamities — such as droughts or floods — or political upheaval, these countries often have a limited supply or absence of food.

Lack of protein in the diet causes Kwashiorkor. Protein is found in every cell in your body. Protein is required in your diet for your body to repair and replace cells. This is how a healthy human body regenerates cells regularly. Protein is particularly necessary for growth in children and during pregnancy. When the body is deficient in protein, growth and regular bodily functions slow down, and kwashiorkor develops. (1) (Kwashiorkor, n.d.)

Today, in the United States we are living in what is called a postindustrial world/society. A postindustrial society is marked by a transition from a manufacturing-based economy to a service-based economy, a transition that is also connected with subsequent societal restructuring. Postindustrialization is the next evolutionary step from an industrialized society and is most evident in countries and regions that were among the first to experience the Industrial Revolution, such as the United States, western Europe, and Japan. (2) (Robinson, 2013)

To reiterate, in the United States, we live in a postindustrial world/society. And as such we have no want for even the most basic of nutritional needs. And the reality is that most of us in the United States have access to and consume too much good stuff, food, and otherwise.

As such, I will demonstrate below why our health is suffering so badly in this world of plenty we call home. The short answer is…Too much protein. When we consume protein above and beyond our body’s physiological needs, our body’s innate mechanisms become the machinery that forms the basis of our damnation. Our early demise.

The following is a simplified explanation of what happens inside the human body when we consume protein above its immediate needs at any moment in time.

Deamination is the process of removing an amino group from an amino acid. This process is crucial because it allows the amino acid to be converted into a form that can be used for energy production or other metabolic processes. It is

It’s important to note that while gluconeogenesis is a critical metabolic pathway, the body generally prefers to use carbohydrates and fats as the primary sources of energy, resorting to protein catabolism as a significant energy source only under conditions of dietary deficiency or metabolic stress.

When the body uses amino acids for energy, deamination occurs in the liver, converting the nitrogen-containing amino group into ammonia, which is then converted into urea and excreted by the kidneys. The remaining part of the amino acid, which is now without the amino group, enters various metabolic pathways, including the Krebs cycle, for energy production or the synthesis of glucose or fatty acids.

Which bodily process happens first, proteolysis or deamination?

The process by which the body breaks down protein into individual amino acids is called “proteolysis.” This process involves the breakdown of the peptide bonds that link amino acids together in proteins. Proteolysis is carried out by enzymes known as proteases and peptidases. It occurs in various parts of the body, including the stomach and small intestine, where dietary proteins are digested, as well as within cells, where proteins are continually broken down and recycled. Proteolysis is a key step in protein metabolism, allowing the body to utilize the amino acids for various functions, including new protein synthesis, energy production, and other metabolic processes.

Proteolysis occurs before deamination in the sequence of protein metabolism. Here’s the typical order:

  1. Proteolysis: This is the first step, where proteins are broken down into individual amino acids. Proteolysis happens through the action of digestive enzymes in the gastrointestinal tract for dietary proteins or by cellular enzymes for endogenous proteins.
  2. Deamination: Once amino acids are released from proteins, they are used for various purposes. Deamination may occur if an amino acid is to be used for energy or converted into other compounds. This is the process where the amino group is removed, typically in the liver.

Proteolysis is the initial process that releases amino acids from proteins, and deamination is a subsequent step that further modifies amino acids for various metabolic needs.

When proteins are metabolized, they are broken down into their constituent amino acids. A key component of these amino acids is nitrogen. During the catabolism (breakdown) of amino acids, the amino group (NH2) is removed in a process called deamination. This process occurs mainly in the liver.

Nitrogenous wastes are a byproduct of the metabolism of proteins and nucleic acids. The digestive process breaks down proteins into amino acids, which then enter the body’s metabolic pathways, producing nitrogenous wastes.

Removing the amino group results in the formation of ammonia (NH3), which is toxic. The liver then converts this ammonia into less toxic substances, mainly urea in mammals, including humans. This conversion is part of the urea cycle. The urea is then transported to the kidneys, where it is filtered out of the blood and excreted from the body in urine.

To reiterate, nitrogenous wastes, particularly ammonia and urea, which are byproducts of amino acid deamination, are harmful to the brain, soft tissues, and the cardiovascular system due to their toxic effects, especially in high concentrations. Here’s why:

  1. Ammonia Toxicity: Ammonia, a direct byproduct of deamination, is highly toxic, especially to the brain and nervous system. It disrupts normal cellular and neurological functions.
  2. Urea and Osmotic Imbalance: While urea, which is less toxic than ammonia, is a safer way for the body to transport and excrete nitrogen, high levels of urea cause osmotic imbalances. This leads to dehydration and stress on cells, including those in the cardiovascular system.
  3. Metabolic Acidosis: Accumulation of nitrogenous wastes leads to metabolic acidosis, a condition where the blood becomes too acidic. This impairs cardiovascular function and damages heart tissue.
  4. Inflammation and Oxidative Stress: Excess nitrogenous waste induces inflammation and oxidative stress, contributing to tissue damage and atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries).

The body normally converts ammonia to urea in the liver (via the urea cycle) and excretes it through the kidneys to avoid these harmful effects. However, suppose this system is overwhelmed(over-consumption) or impaired (as in liver or kidney disease). In that case, nitrogenous waste levels become dangerously high, leading to toxicity and damage beyond the body’s ability to repair.

What kind of diets result in higher levels of nitrogenous waste?

Diets that result in higher levels of nitrogenous waste are typically those rich in proteins and nucleic acids. This is because the metabolism of these macronutrients involves the removal and excretion of nitrogen:

  1. High-Protein Foods: Foods with high protein content are the primary contributors to increased nitrogenous waste. This includes:
    • Meat (beef, pork, lamb, poultry)
    • Fish and seafood
    • Eggs
    • Dairy products (milk, cheese, yogurt)
    • Legumes (beans, lentils, soy products)
    • Nuts and seeds
  2. Foods Rich in Nucleic Acids: Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) are also metabolized into nitrogenous wastes, though to a lesser extent than proteins. Foods that are particularly high in nucleic acids include:
    • Organ meats (liver, kidney, heart)
    • Seafood (especially sardines, mackerel, and shellfish)
    • Yeast and yeast extracts

To reiterate, when these foods are digested, the body breaks down their proteins into amino acids and their nucleic acids into nucleotides. The nitrogen-containing parts of these molecules are then converted primarily into urea, which is excreted by the kidneys.

When consuming a diet high in protein, it is important to support the kidneys in effectively processing and eliminating these nitrogenous wastes. Excessive protein intake over an extended period strains the kidneys, particularly in individuals with preexisting kidney conditions.

Here is what one should expect if one consumes a high-protein diet that results in excess proteolysis and deamination.

  1. Atherosclerosis: There is evidence that certain metabolic by-products of protein contribute to atherosclerosis and the buildup of plaques in the arteries.
  2. Calcifications, Vascular and Otherwise: In the context of kidney disease, conditions like hyperphosphatemia (high phosphate levels) occur due to excessive protein intake. This leads to vascular and other systemic calcifications and is a significant risk factor for cardiovascular disease.
  3. Hypertension: High protein intake, especially from animal sources, increases blood pressure, a major risk factor for CVD. This complex relationship involves various factors, including changes in kidney function and fluid balance due to the handling of the by-products of protein metabolism.
  4. Kidney Stress and Damage: The kidneys filter waste products, including those produced during deamination. Excessive deamination overburdens the kidneys, leading to or exacerbating kidney diseases, including chronic kidney disease and azotemia.
  5. Increased Urea and Uremia: As a result of excessive deamination, urea levels in the blood increase, leading to a condition called uremia, where the kidneys cannot filter it efficiently. Uremia has been associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, as it contributes to factors like endothelial dysfunction, arterial stiffness, and inflammation.
  6. Inflammation: Chronic kidney disease and uremia lead to systemic inflammation, which is a known contributor to cardiovascular disease.
  7. Liver Disorders: Since the liver converts ammonia (a by-product of deamination) into urea, excessive deamination stresses the liver. In cases of liver dysfunction, ammonia may not be adequately converted, leading to hyperammonemia, which is toxic, especially to the brain.
  8. Metabolic Effects: Chronic consumption of excessive protein, especially animal protein, has various metabolic effects, such as increasing the risk of kidney stones, altering calcium balance, affecting bone health, and impacting kidney function, especially in individuals with pre-existing kidney disease.
  9. Metabolic Acidosis: Deamination leads to an accumulation of acidic compounds in the body. It disrupts the body’s acid-base balance, leading to metabolic acidosis. This condition causes fatigue, rapid breathing, confusion, and in severe cases, shock or death.
  10. Alterations in Gut Microbiota: High protein intake, particularly from animal sources, alters the composition and function of the gut microbiota. This has various implications for gut health and possibly systemic inflammation.
  11. Electrolyte Imbalances: The process of deamination and the subsequent handling of its by-products affects the balance of electrolytes in the body, potentially leading to imbalances that affect muscle and nerve function.
  12. Bone Health Issues: Excessive protein intake and deamination affect the body’s calcium balance, leading to bone loss and increased risk of osteoporosis.

At this point in time, I believe this is likely the most significant modifiable factor to our species overall mortality. Imagine if a pharmaceutical company offered a single pill that could prevent all of these 12 problems. Everyone would be clamoring for it, the individual that stumbled across this solution would be considered a savior of mankind.

There is a way to do this with a pill. If you still don’t see the solution, if it is not obvious, please don’t hesitate to ask me how.

  1. Kwashiorkor. (n.d.). S10.fit. https://www.s10.fit/blogs/disease/What-is-the-cause-for-Kwashiorkor/

  2. Robinson, R. C. (2013, November 19). Postindustrial society | Urbanization, Automation, Globalization. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/money/topic/postindustrial-society

I Sweat; Therefore, I Am Becoming

I’m really beginning to question the experience of my existence before this last 5 months of daily sauna.

The substance of what I am experiencing from this self-experiment just keeps pushing out a boundary of hydration that I could have never imagined. And I know I am not unique in the hydration experience that I was previously living, before June 22, 2023, any more than anyone else who has been living a life without profuse sweating. Most of humanity is no longer sweating because of our advances in technology. And if we are not allowing hydration to flow throughout our body in this manner then it should really be no wonder that we as a species are suffering the ill fate of our joyously celebrated industrial and technological revolutions that have brought us to this leisurely place in time.

The Role of Protein on Cardiovascular Disease and Associated Cardiac Events

How does protein deamination affect atherosclerotic plaque, cardiovascular health, and arterial calcification?

Protein deamination, a process where amino groups are removed from amino acids, can have several implications for cardiovascular health, particularly in the context of atherosclerotic plaque formation and arterial calcification. Here’s how these processes are interconnected:

  1. Atherosclerotic Plaque Formation:
    • Role of Amino Acids: Certain amino acids, especially those containing sulfur (like homocysteine), can influence atherosclerotic processes. Elevated levels of homocysteine, which can result from abnormal protein deamination, are associated with an increased risk of atherosclerosis.
    • Inflammatory Response: Deaminated proteins or amino acids might be seen as foreign by the body, triggering an immune and inflammatory response. This inflammation can contribute to the development of atherosclerotic plaques.
  2. Cardiovascular Health:
    • Endothelial Dysfunction: Abnormal protein deamination can lead to the production of substances that are harmful to the endothelial lining of blood vessels. This can result in endothelial dysfunction, a precursor to atherosclerosis.
    • Oxidative Stress and Inflammation: The by-products of protein deamination can contribute to oxidative stress and inflammation, which are key factors in the development of cardiovascular diseases.
  3. Arterial Calcification:
    • Calcium Deposition: Certain by-products of protein deamination can contribute to the calcification process in arteries. This calcification can make the arterial walls stiff and less elastic, increasing the risk of hypertension and other cardiovascular problems.
    • Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells: Protein deamination influences the behavior of vascular smooth muscle cells, promoting their transformation into a type that deposits calcium, thus contributing to arterial calcification.
What role do protein deamination and excess circulating phosphorus that results from deamination play in atherosclerosis?

Protein deamination and excess circulating phosphorus, both arising from metabolic processes in the body, can have significant roles in the development and progression of atherosclerosis. Here’s how these factors are interlinked:

  1. Protein Deamination:
    • Endothelial Dysfunction: Protein deamination results in the formation of various by-products, such as ammonia and keto acids. These by-products can cause endothelial dysfunction, a key factor in the initiation of atherosclerosis. Endothelial cells line the inner walls of blood vessels, and their dysfunction can lead to reduced nitric oxide availability, increased oxidative stress, and inflammatory response, all of which contribute to atherosclerotic plaque formation.
    • Inflammatory Response: The by-products of protein deamination can also trigger an immune response, leading to chronic inflammation. Inflammation is a crucial element in developing atherosclerotic plaques, contributing to their growth and instability.
  2. Excess Circulating Phosphorus:
    • Vascular Calcification: High levels of phosphorus in the blood, often a consequence of impaired kidney function or dietary factors, can lead to vascular calcification. This process involves the deposition of calcium and phosphorus in the arterial walls, making them stiffer and more prone to damage. Vascular calcification is a significant risk factor for atherosclerosis and cardiovascular diseases.
    • Oxidative Stress and Endothelial Dysfunction: Excess phosphorus can induce oxidative stress and further exacerbate endothelial dysfunction. This creates a cycle where impaired endothelial function leads to more plaque formation and arterial stiffness, escalating the progression of atherosclerosis.

The relationship between protein deamination, phosphorus levels, and atherosclerosis highlights the importance of maintaining a balanced diet and proper kidney function, as kidneys play a crucial role in regulating phosphorus levels. Individuals with chronic kidney disease are particularly at risk, as they often have elevated phosphorus levels and altered amino acid metabolism, which can accelerate the development of cardiovascular diseases, including atherosclerosis.

Therefore, in the context of cardiovascular health, it’s essential to monitor and manage factors like protein intake and phosphorus levels, especially in individuals with pre-existing health conditions that might predispose them to these metabolic imbalances.

What amino acids contain sulfur?

Sulfur-containing amino acids are primarily characterized by the presence of sulfur in their molecular structure. The most commonly known sulfur-containing amino acids are:

  1. Methionine: This is an essential amino acid, meaning that the human body cannot synthesize it, and it must be obtained from the diet. Methionine plays a critical role in many cellular processes, including the initiation of protein synthesis.
  2. Cysteine: Unlike methionine, cysteine can be synthesized in the human body, although its synthesis depends on the availability of methionine. Cysteine is important for protein structure, as it can form disulfide bonds that help maintain the three-dimensional structure of proteins.
  3. Homocysteine: This is a non-protein amino acid, typically formed as an intermediate in the metabolism of methionine and cysteine. Elevated levels of homocysteine in the blood are considered a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases.
  4. Taurine: Although not incorporated into proteins, taurine is an important sulfur-containing amino acid found in many tissues, playing a role in bile salt conjugation, eye health, cardiac function, and the development and function of skeletal muscle, the central nervous system, and the cardiovascular system.
  5. Cystine: This is a dimeric amino acid formed by the oxidation of two cysteine molecules, which are linked by a disulfide bond. Cystine is more stable than cysteine and plays a role in the structural and functional aspects of various proteins and enzymes.

What foods are highest in methionine, cysteine, homocysteine, taurine, and cystine?

Different foods are rich in various sulfur-containing amino acids like methionine, cysteine, homocysteine, taurine, and cystine. Here’s a breakdown of foods high in each of these amino acids:

  1. Methionine:
    • Animal Proteins: Chicken, turkey, beef, pork, and fish are excellent methionine sources. Eggs, particularly egg whites, are also rich in this amino acid.
    • Dairy Products: Milk, cheese, and yogurt contain good amounts of methionine.
    • Plant-Based Sources: For vegetarians and vegans, soy products (like tofu and soybeans), nuts (such as Brazil nuts and almonds), and seeds (like sesame and sunflower) are good plant-based sources.
  2. Cysteine:
    • Animal-Based Foods: Like methionine, cysteine is high in meats (chicken, pork, beef), eggs, and dairy products.
    • Plant Sources: Whole grains (like wheat germ and oatmeal), legumes (such as lentils and chickpeas), and seeds are good plant sources of cysteine.
  3. Homocysteine:
    • Homocysteine is not typically obtained directly from the diet. Instead, it is produced in the body from methionine. Therefore, foods high in methionine can indirectly contribute to homocysteine levels.
  4. Taurine:
    • Seafood and Fish: Particularly high in taurine, with shellfish (like clams, scallops, and shrimp) and fish (such as salmon and mackerel) being excellent sources.
    • Meat: Chicken and beef also contain taurine but in lower amounts compared to seafood.
    • Dairy: Some dairy products have taurine but in smaller quantities.
  5. Cystine:
    • As with cysteine, cystine is found in high-protein foods like meats, eggs, and dairy products.
    • Plant Sources: Beans, lentils, and whole grains also provide cystine, albeit in smaller amounts compared to animal sources.

What foods are highest in methionine, cysteine, homocysteine, taurine, and cystine? Please list them in descending order by volume.

  1. Methionine (from highest to lowest content):
    • Eggs (especially egg whites)
    • Fish (such as salmon, cod)
    • Chicken and turkey
    • Beef and pork
    • Dairy products (like cheese and milk)
    • Nuts and seeds (like Brazil nuts, sesame seeds)
    • Soy products (tofu, soybeans)
  2. Cysteine (from highest to lowest content):
    • Pork, beef, poultry
    • Eggs
    • Dairy products (cheese, milk)
    • Whole grains (wheat germ, oats)
    • Legumes (lentils, chickpeas)
    • Nuts and seeds
  3. Homocysteine:
    • Homocysteine is not typically found in foods. It’s a by-product of methionine metabolism in the body. Thus, foods high in methionine can influence homocysteine levels.
  4. Taurine (from highest to lowest content):
    • Shellfish (clams, scallops, shrimp)
    • Fish (mackerel, salmon)
    • Meat (chicken, beef)
    • Dairy (in smaller amounts)
  5. Cystine (from highest to lowest content):
    • Meats (beef, pork, chicken)
    • Eggs
    • Dairy products
    • Beans and lentils
    • Whole grains

What role do protein deamination and excess circulating nitrogen that results from deamination play in atherosclerosis?

Protein deamination and the resulting excess circulating nitrogen play roles in the development of atherosclerosis through several mechanisms:

  1. Protein Deamination:
    • Formation of Ammonia and Urea: Protein deamination leads to the release of ammonia, which is then converted to urea in the liver. Elevated levels of these nitrogenous compounds can have systemic effects on the body.
    • Endothelial Dysfunction: The by-products of protein deamination, including ammonia and urea, can contribute to endothelial dysfunction. The endothelium is the inner lining of blood vessels, and its dysfunction is a key early step in the development of atherosclerosis. This dysfunction can impair the regulation of vascular tone, promote inflammation, and enhance the susceptibility of blood vessels to atherosclerotic changes.
  2. Excess Circulating Nitrogen:
    • Oxidative Stress: An excess of nitrogenous compounds can contribute to oxidative stress, which is a state of imbalance between free radicals and antioxidants in the body. Oxidative stress damages cells and is a major factor in the initiation and progression of atherosclerosis.
    • Inflammation: Chronic exposure to high levels of nitrogenous waste products can induce inflammation, another critical factor in the development of atherosclerotic plaques. Inflammatory processes contribute to the progression of these plaques and their potential to cause cardiovascular events.
  3. Other Metabolic Impacts:
    • Impaired Kidney Function: Excess nitrogen compounds can strain the kidneys, which are responsible for filtering and excreting these waste products. Impaired kidney function is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease, partly because it leads to an accumulation of harmful substances in the blood, including those resulting from protein deamination.
  4. Interactions with Other Risk Factors:
    • Synergistic Effects with Other Cardiovascular Risk Factors: The effects of protein deamination and excess circulating nitrogen can be exacerbated when combined with other cardiovascular risk factors, such as hypertension, high cholesterol, smoking, and diabetes.

Could Sweating in a Sauna(Diaphoresis) Spell the End of Dialysis?

How much sweat is produced in a 30-minute sauna session?

The amount of sweat produced during a sauna session can vary widely between individuals and depends on a number of factors, including the temperature and humidity of the sauna, the individual’s physiology, their acclimation to the sauna, and personal hydration levels before entering.

On average, a person might sweat out approximately one pint (which is roughly 16 ounces or about 0.47 liters) of fluid during a typical 30-minute sauna session. However, some people may sweat out more than this—up to 2 pints or more, especially in an intense sauna environment or if they are particularly sensitive to heat.

It’s important to note that the primary purpose of sweating in a sauna is to cool the body down, but it also has the effect of increasing blood circulation and can help with relaxation and detoxification. Due to the significant loss of fluids through sweating in the sauna, it is crucial to rehydrate before, during (if possible), and after the sauna session to prevent dehydration. Users are often advised to drink water or electrolyte-replenishing drinks after using the sauna to replace lost fluids and minerals.

Can diaphoresis be used as an adjunct with dialysis?

Diaphoresis, or excessive sweating, is not currently a treatment modality used in conjunction with dialysis. Dialysis is a medical procedure that primarily acts as a substitute for the normal function of the kidneys, removing waste products and excess fluid from the blood when the kidneys can no longer perform those functions effectively.

While sweating also removes waste products through the skin, it is not currently considered a therapeutic adjunct in the context of kidney failure or dialysis. Diaphoresis is not currently considered efficient or reliable for this purpose, especially considering that many patients on dialysis have limited fluid removal capabilities, and inducing sweat could potentially lead to dehydration and electrolyte imbalance.

However, maintaining a healthy fluid balance is crucial for patients undergoing dialysis, and avoiding excessive fluid gain between dialysis sessions is an integral part of managing their condition. It’s always best for patients with renal issues to follow the fluid intake guidelines provided by their healthcare team.

How many ounces of plasma are removed from the human body during a dialysis session?

In hemodialysis, the process primarily removes waste products and excess fluid from the blood; it doesn’t typically remove plasma as a separate component. The amount of fluid removed during a dialysis session can vary greatly depending on the fluid status of the patient, which is influenced by their fluid intake and residual kidney function.

The amount of fluid targeted for removal is called the “fluid removal goal” or “ultrafiltration goal,” and it is customized for each patient depending on their needs. This can range from less than a liter to several liters during a single session. Since there are about 33.8 ounces in a liter, removing 2 liters of fluid would equate to approximately 67.6 ounces.

It’s important to note that this fluid is not just plasma but all extracellular fluid, which includes interstitial fluid as well. Plasma volume is only a part of the total blood volume, and the primary aim is to balance the fluid status, not to remove a specific amount of plasma.

Is sweat taken from our extracellular fluids?

Yes, sweat is primarily composed of water and electrolytes, such as sodium and chloride, and it comes from the body’s extracellular fluid. Specifically, the fluid that comprises sweat is initially taken from the plasma in the blood. As blood circulates through the sweat glands, these glands filter the plasma, removing some substances and adding others to produce sweat, which is then secreted onto the skin’s surface. Sweat production can lead to a minor loss of extracellular fluid, but it is not a significant route for fluid clearance compared to renal filtration as occurs in the kidneys.

Is interstitial fluid extracellular fluid?

Yes, interstitial fluid is a type of extracellular fluid. Extracellular fluid (ECF) refers to all body fluid outside of cells, and it is divided into several compartments, including:

  1. Interstitial fluid, which bathes and surrounds the tissue cells. It’s found in the spaces between cells and is directly involved in the exchange of nutrients and waste products between blood and tissue cells.
  2. Intravascular fluid, which is the fluid within blood vessels, consisting mainly of plasma. Plasma serves as the carrier for blood cells and nutrients within the circulatory system.
  3. Transcellular fluid, which is the fluid contained within specialized body spaces, such as cerebrospinal fluid in the central nervous system, ocular fluids in the eyes, synovial fluid in joints, and pleural, pericardial, and peritoneal fluids in the respective cavities.

The distinction between these types of extracellular fluids is important because they each serve different physiological roles. However, they are all outside of and surrounding cells, thus they are considered part of the extracellular space.

What does plasma consist of?

Plasma is the liquid component of blood, in which blood cells are suspended. It makes up about 55% of the total blood volume and is composed of roughly 90% water. The other 10% consists of various substances vital to the body’s functions, which include:

  1. Proteins: Plasma proteins are the most abundant solid components of plasma, comprising 6-8% of the plasma volume. These proteins include:
    • Albumin, which helps maintain blood’s osmotic balance and transport substances.
    • Globulins, which are involved in immune responses and also act as transport proteins.
    • Fibrinogen, which is essential for blood clotting.
    • Regulatory proteins, including enzymes and hormones.
  2. Electrolytes: These charged particles are crucial for maintaining the body’s pH balance, transmitting electrical charges necessary for muscle contraction and nerve impulse transmission, and regulating fluid balance. They include:
    • Sodium
    • Potassium
    • Calcium
    • Magnesium
    • Chloride
    • Bicarbonate
    • Phosphate
  3. Gases: Plasma transports respiratory gases. Oxygen is bound to hemoglobin in red blood cells, but some is also dissolved in plasma. Carbon dioxide is also carried in plasma, partly dissolved, partly as bicarbonate, and partly in association with blood proteins.
  4. Nutrients: These are substances absorbed from the digestive tract and transported to the tissues for use or storage. They include:
    • Glucose
    • Amino acids
    • Fatty acids and triglycerides
    • Cholesterol
    • Vitamins
  5. Waste Products: These are substances produced by the body that need to be excreted. They include:
    • Urea
    • Creatinine
    • Bilirubin
    • Ammonia
  6. Hormones: Endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream, and plasma carries them to their target organs.

Thus, plasma serves as a transport medium for these components and plays a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis, defending against disease, and healing injuries through blood clotting mechanisms. The composition of plasma makes it critical for supporting cell function and allows it to serve as a medium for exchanging substances between blood and body tissues.

What does extracellular fluid consist of?

Extracellular fluid (ECF) refers to all body fluids outside the cells and is a significant component of the body’s fluid environment, ensuring that cells are bathed in a medium that allows them to survive and function. The ECF comprises several components:

  1. Interstitial Fluid: This is the fluid that surrounds body cells and provides the immediate microenvironment that allows for movement of ions, proteins, and nutrients across the cell membrane. It is similar in composition to plasma but has lower concentrations of proteins because the capillary walls are generally less permeable to large molecules like proteins.
  2. Plasma: As the liquid component of blood, plasma carries the blood cells and is rich in nutrients, hormones, proteins, and waste products. Its composition is more complex than interstitial fluid due to the higher protein content.
  3. Transcellular Fluid: This includes the specialized fluids that are contained in body spaces, such as cerebrospinal fluid, synovial fluid, aqueous humor, saliva, bile, and fluid secreted by the digestive tract. Although these fluids may have distinct compositions specific to their locations and functions, they are also part of the ECF.

The composition of extracellular fluid is maintained by various physiological processes and typically includes:

  • Water: As the primary solvent in which all the solutes are dissolved.
  • Electrolytes: These are important for maintaining membrane potentials and fluid balance and include ions such as sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, bicarbonate, and phosphates.
  • Nutrients: Like glucose and fatty acids, which are delivered to cells for energy and growth.
  • Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide: Gases that are critical for cellular respiration.
  • Waste Products: Such as urea, which cells need to dispose of.
  • Proteins: Although the protein concentration is much lower in the interstitial fluid than in plasma, some proteins are present in all compartments of the ECF.

The balance of the ECF composition is crucial for various physiological processes, including osmoregulation, pH balance, and the proper functioning of cells. The kidneys play a significant role in maintaining this balance by adjusting the volume and concentration of urine excreted, which in turn regulates the composition of the ECF.

What does interstitial fluid consist of?

Interstitial fluid, which is part of the extracellular fluid, surrounds the cells of tissues. This fluid provides a medium for the exchange of substances between the blood and cell environment, enabling the transport of nutrients, oxygen, and waste products.

The composition of interstitial fluid is similar to that of blood plasma, but it generally contains lower concentrations of proteins because the capillary walls are semi-permeable and restrict the passage of large molecules. Here are the key components of interstitial fluid:

  • Water: The main component, acting as a solvent for other molecules.
  • Electrolytes: Including ions such as sodium, chloride, bicarbonate, potassium, magnesium, calcium, and phosphate. The concentrations of these ions are similar to those in plasma but can vary depending on tissue activity and capillary exchange dynamics.
  • Nutrients: Glucose, fatty acids, amino acids, and other small molecules that have passed through the capillary wall are present and available for use by the cells.
  • Gases: Oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse between the blood and interstitial fluid based on concentration gradients.
  • Waste Products: Metabolic wastes like urea and lactate are present before they are carried away by the blood to be processed or excreted by the body.

Because proteins are present in lower amounts in the interstitial fluid than in the plasma, the oncotic pressure (colloid osmotic pressure) is lower in the interstitial space than in the blood vessels. This difference in oncotic pressure is one factor that allows for the osmotic exchange of water and solutes across the capillary walls.

The lymphatic system also plays a crucial role in the management of interstitial fluid. It drains excess fluid and proteins from the interstitial spaces and returns them to the bloodstream, maintaining fluid balance and preventing edema, which is the accumulation of excess fluid in tissues.

 

A Preview of What is to Come From Chew Digest

The Power of Natural Hygiene: Honoring the Body’s Innate Wisdom

Imagine for a moment a world where we truly understand the boundless capabilities of our bodies. A world where, instead of seeking external solutions, we harness the innate healing powers within us. This is the essence of Natural Hygiene or Life Science.

Natural Hygiene is not merely an alternative approach to health. It’s a profound philosophy that emphasizes the body’s inherent ability to maintain and restore its own health. It’s about recognizing that, given the right conditions and care, our bodies can find their way back to equilibrium.

1. The Wisdom of the Body:
The cornerstone of Natural Hygiene is the belief that the body possesses an intrinsic intelligence. Just as it knows how to grow, digest, breathe, and heal a wound without conscious input from us, it knows how to combat imbalances and diseases. It is designed to thrive, and when it doesn’t, it often signals a need to return to natural practices and rhythms.

2. Prevention Over Cure:
While modern medicine often focuses on treating symptoms, Natural Hygiene emphasizes the importance of prevention. It’s about creating an environment, both internally and externally, that promotes well-being. This includes a balanced diet, ample hydration, regular exercise, proper rest, and a stress-free environment.

3. The Role of Toxemia:
Central to the Life Science approach is the understanding of toxemia, the accumulation of toxins in the body. It posits that many diseases arise from the body’s efforts to rid itself of these toxins. By identifying and removing the sources of these toxins, be it from diet, environment, or lifestyle, one can pave the way for genuine healing.

4. Nature’s Three Doctors:
Sunlight, fresh air, and pure water are often referred to as nature’s three doctors in the realm of Natural Hygiene. These elements, so fundamental yet so often overlooked, play a crucial role in maintaining and restoring health.

5. The Importance of Mental Well-being:
Physical health and mental well-being are inextricably linked. Stress, anxiety, and negative emotions can create imbalances within the body. Natural Hygiene emphasizes the importance of mental peace, positivity, and a supportive environment for holistic health.

6. The Body’s Self-Healing Mechanism:
When we cut our finger, we don’t need to consciously direct our body to heal; it does so automatically. Similarly, when given the right conditions, our body can combat more complex issues. Rest, fasting, and a return to natural practices often allow the body to reset and rejuvenate.

7. Collaboration, Not Confrontation:
Instead of waging war against diseases and pathogens, Natural Hygiene focuses on creating harmony. It’s about understanding that bacteria and viruses are a part of our ecosystem. By maintaining a balanced internal environment, we can coexist with these microorganisms in symbiotic harmony.

In embracing Natural Hygiene or Life Science, we are not just choosing an alternative health path. We are opting for a holistic lifestyle that recognizes the deep connection between us, our environment, and the natural world. It’s about returning to the basics, honoring the wisdom of our bodies, and fostering an environment where true healing can occur from the inside out.

Stay Tuned!!!

Your host and editor of Chew Digest: Michael J. Loomis

How Smart Are We?

We humans are akin to naked mole rats that recently made a quantum leap in evolution, waking up one morning to discover that they have sight. At our best, we are mostly blind to the universe we live in. At our worst we are blinded by our own lack of knowledge and skills in many areas, resulting in a grand overestimation of our own competence.

-Michael J. Loomis

Sauna Magic

Imagine stepping into a sanctuary of warmth, where the air gently embraces you with temperatures soaring from 113°F to a toasty 212°F. This magical place is none other than the traditional sauna – an age-old treasure that’s not just about relaxation but an exciting journey to rejuvenate and recharge.

Every moment you spend in a sauna is like giving your body a vibrant, musical symphony of healing. Your body dances in response to the heat, sparking a series of powerful reactions from your heart to your hormones. It’s as if every cell comes alive, working together harmoniously, fighting to keep the delicate balance we call ‘homeostasis.’ And guess what? The more you bask in this warmth, the better your body becomes at handling it, adapting, and evolving, thanks to the magic of hormesis.

But the truly exhilarating news? Over the years, scientists and researchers have dived deep into the world of saunas and have resurfaced with golden nuggets of information. Saunas aren’t just a luxury; they’re a passport to longer, healthier lives! Groundbreaking studies have shown that regular sauna-goers are less likely to fall prey to various ailments. Even better? The more you indulge, the brighter the health benefits shine.

Embrace the heat. Dive into the world of sauna bathing and unlock a life bursting with energy, vitality, and unparalleled wellness your radiant future self wants and awaits!

In The Zone

For the last six years, I have been studying human physiology and disease pathology. As a survivor of cancer, I found myself wanting to learn everything I could about how that happened and how I could avoid ever hearing that word again. Disease(cancer) has been an incredible motivator to improve all areas of my life. Diet, exercise, sleep, you name it. Nothing stands in my way of doing everything I can to improve my odds of making my way to 120 years of age with a body that functions like a healthy middle-aged me. I don’t want to grow old or infirmed, and I surely don’t want to be physically burdensome. I want full functionality of all my physical and cognitive resources until the day I breathe my last breath.

What this means is that I have embarked in all manner of self-experimentation over the last six-plus years to figure out how to achieve my goals best.

Back in June, I added daily sauna use to my long list of self-experiment projects. Within a week, I was up to thirty(30) minutes per day, sweating profusely. Literally wringing, like a sponge, the hydration and toxins out of my body so that I could make room for new, fresh, clean, hydrating water. My goal is to do this every single day for nine months straight to simply see what there is to see, considering sauna bathing has emerged as a probable means of extending healthspan, based on compelling data from observational, interventional, and mechanistic studies. All this to improve not only my physical fitness but also the overall appearance of age in my skin through the act of sweating profusely.

What I discovered is that this is not an easy thing to do. Fifteen minutes. Twenty minutes. Easy peasy. But Thirty minutes is hard, and it takes some serious meditative focus. A couple of weeks ago, I decided to start focusing a LOT more on my breathing to see if that would help me better be able to withstand the self-imposed torture. Sure enough, it has, but still, I have struggled. And then, on Wednesday, I found it. The Zone. To my surprise, the thirty minutes actually flew by like it was fifteen. Blew me away.

I thought I had arrived and that it would be smooth sailing from here on out. But alas, one experience of finding myself in the zone did not mean that I had mastered it, and yesterday’s trip to the sauna whooped my posterior. Fortunately, though, it did teach me that I may, through practice, be able to find myself spending more time in the zone as the future unfolds. And I really hope so because thirty minutes of sauna is torture.

Embarking on a Sweaty Journey of Discovery

UPDATE: As of June 21, 2024, I just completed one full year of daily sauna sessions. I only missed two(2) days I believe. Maybe a third. One of those days they were closed(Christmas).

Just over three months ago, I embarked on a thrilling voyage—one that would push the boundaries of conventional health wisdom. For 110 days, without fail, I surrendered myself to the soothing embrace of a dry sauna, basking in its warmth for 30 minutes each day. It was more than just a regimen; it was a daily ritual that has rejuvenated my soul and appears to be reshaping my body.

In this process, I feel as though I am transforming into something akin to a sweat maestro. My body is singing out with joy, celebrating its innate capacity to perspire, chuckling at the sheer intensity of it all!

What I’ve unearthed through this endeavor could very well be the long-lost key to optimal health, overlooked by many health enthusiasts. It feels as though my body is undergoing a profound architectural metamorphosis. It’s as if my entire system is recalibrating, reopening old, long-forgotten pathways for detoxification and hydration that have lain dormant in our mad dash toward innovation and the future.

Imagine a sponge—every pore, every fiber, every crevice—soaked, then wrung out, refreshed, and ready to absorb cleansing hydration anew. Now, visualize our skin in the same way—a meticulously designed system that has evolved over countless millennia to filter, purify, and balance our internal fluids.

Yet, as we glance back at history, the Industrial Revolution brought with it not just technological marvels but also a seismic shift in our natural environments and the ways we work, live, and interact. The conveniences of automation, refrigeration, and modern climate control, while groundbreaking, may have inadvertently nudged us away from our body’s evolutionary path.

Could it be that our meteoric rise in technology has raced ahead of our body’s ability to acclimatize? That through our quest for advancement, we’ve inadvertently steeped ourselves in a sea of toxins and waste that our bodies now struggle to eliminate in a manner that they didn’t before?

Every morning, as I sip on my elixir, pure, clean water, I feel the hydration literally coursing through me, rejuvenating every cell, every pore. There’s a palpable joy, a tingling euphoria, a sparkling, if you will, that envelops me, reminding me of the wonders of the human body and its boundless potential.

I challenge you to join with me on this journey of rediscovery. Dive headfirst into the healing power of sweat, and together, we can celebrate this daily euphoria of truly living in tune with nature and our bodies!

A Recasting of René Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy

MEDITATION I

A while back, I realized that I believed in many things that might not be true, and these false beliefs affected everything I thought afterward. I knew I had to question all my beliefs and start fresh, building my knowledge from the ground up, so I could be sure that my beliefs were true. But this seemed like a huge task, so I waited until I felt I was mature enough to tackle it.

Now that I have the time and the peace of mind, I’m ready to question everything I believe. I don’t need to prove that all my beliefs are false; I just need to find a reason to doubt each one of them. I don’t have to examine each belief one by one; I can just question the foundations of my beliefs, and if those foundations are shaky, then all the beliefs built on them are questionable too.

I realized that all the things I was most certain about came from my senses, but sometimes our senses deceive us, so I can’t completely trust them. But even when I’m dreaming, and my senses are creating a false reality, there must be some truth to the objects and concepts I perceive, like the ideas of shape, quantity, time, and existence.

So, even if all the things I perceive with my senses are illusions, there must be some real, basic elements forming those illusions, like real colors forming a painting. Because of this, I think that even if the physical world is doubtful, the studies of simple and general things, like math and geometry, have some certainty, because whether I’m awake or dreaming, two plus three always equals five, and a square always has four sides.

But then, I wonder, what if there’s a powerful being who created me and controls my thoughts, making me believe in a false reality? Or what if everything I know is just the result of fate or chance? Then, all the things I believe, no matter how simple and certain they seem, could be false. But I will try to remember these doubts and avoid accepting any belief without thorough examination.

To really challenge my beliefs, I will imagine that an evil, powerful, and deceptive being is creating illusions to deceive me. I will resist believing in the reality of my senses and try to avoid being deceived. But this is hard, and sometimes I would rather continue in my old beliefs and ignore these unsettling doubts.

MEDITATION II

These doubts have really disturbed me, and I don’t see how I can solve them. It’s like I’m in deep water, unable to touch the bottom or to swim to the surface. But I will keep trying, by rejecting anything that can be doubted until I find something certain.

This revision tries to retain the core philosophical ideas of Descartes while simplifying the language and structure to make it more accessible for younger readers. What follows is the original work.

[ORIGINAL]Meditation I: Of the things of which we may doubt

SEVERAL years have now elapsed since I first became aware that I had
accepted, even from my youth, many false opinions for true, and that consequently what I afterward based on such principles was highly doubtful; and from that time I was convinced of the necessity of undertaking once in my life to rid myself of all the opinions I had adopted, and of commencing anew the work of building from the foundation, if I desired to establish a firm and abiding superstructure in the sciences.

But as this enterprise appeared to me to be one of great magnitude, I waited until I had attained an age so mature as to leave me no hope that at any stage of life more advanced I should be better able to execute my design. On this account, I have delayed so long that I should henceforth consider I was doing wrong were I still to consume in deliberation any of the time that now remains for action. To-day, then, since I have opportunely freed my mind from all cares [and am happily disturbed by no passions], and since I am in the secure possession of leisure in a peaceable retirement, I will at length apply myself earnestly and freely to the general overthrow of all my former opinions.

But, to this end, it will not be necessary for me to show that the whole of these are false–a point, perhaps, which I shall never reach; but as even now my reason convinces me that I ought not the less carefully to withhold belief from what is not entirely certain and indubitable, than from what is manifestly false, it will be sufficient to justify the rejection of the whole if I shall find in each some ground for doubt. Nor for this purpose will it be necessary even to deal with each belief individually, which would be truly an endless labor; but, as the removal from below of the foundation necessarily involves the downfall of the whole edifice, I will at once approach the criticism of the principles on which all my former beliefs rested. All that I have, up to this moment, accepted as possessed of the highest truth and certainty, I received either from or through the senses. I observed, however, that these sometimes misled us; and it is the part of prudence not to place absolute confidence in that by which we have even once been deceived.

But it may be said, perhaps, that, although the senses occasionally mislead us respecting minute objects, and such as are so far removed from us as to be beyond the reach of close observation, there are yet many other of their information (presentations), of the truth of which it is manifestly impossible to doubt; as for example, that I am in this place, seated by the fire, clothed in a winter dressing gown, that I hold in my hands this piece of paper, with other intimations of the same nature. But how could I deny that I possess these hands and this body, and withal escape being classed with persons in a state of insanity, whose brains are so disordered and clouded by dark bilious vapors as to cause them pertinaciously to assert that they are monarchs when they are in the greatest poverty; or clothed [in gold] and purple when destitute of any covering; or that their head is made of clay, their body of glass, or that they are gourds? I should certainly be not less insane than they, were I to regulate my procedure according to examples so extravagant.

Though this be true, I must nevertheless here consider that I am a man, and that, consequently, I am in the habit of sleeping, and representing to myself in dreams those same things, or even sometimes others less probable, which the insane think are presented to them in their waking moments. How often have I dreamt that I was in these familiar circumstances, that I was dressed, and occupied this place by the fire, when I was lying undressed in bed? At the present moment, however, I certainly look upon this paper with eyes wide awake; the head which I now move is not asleep; I extend this hand consciously and with express purpose, and I perceive it; the occurrences in sleep are not so distinct as all this. But I cannot forget that, at other times I have been deceived in sleep by similar illusions; and, attentively considering those cases, I perceive so clearly that there exist no certain marks by which the state of waking can ever be distinguished from sleep, that I feel greatly astonished; and in amazement I almost persuade myself that I am now dreaming.

Let us suppose, then, that we are dreaming, and that all these particulars–namely, the opening of the eyes, the motion of the head, the forth- putting of the hands–are merely illusions; and even that we really possess neither an entire body nor hands such as we see. Nevertheless it must be admitted at least that the objects which appear to us in sleep are, as it were, painted representations which could not have been formed unless in the likeness of realities; and, therefore, that those general objects, at all events, namely, eyes, a head, hands, and an entire body, are not simply imaginary, but really existent. For, in truth, painters themselves, even when they study to represent sirens and satyrs by forms the most fantastic and extraordinary, cannot bestow upon them natures absolutely new, but can only make a certain medley of the members of different animals; or if they chance to imagine something so novel that nothing at all similar has ever been seen before, and such as is, therefore, purely fictitious and absolutely false, it is at least certain that the colors of which this is composed are real. And on the same principle, although these general objects, viz. [a body], eyes, a head, hands, and the like, be imaginary, we are nevertheless absolutely necessitated to admit the reality at least of some other objects still more simple and universal than these, of which, just as of certain real colors, all those images of things, whether true and real, or false and fantastic, that are found in our consciousness (cogitatio) are formed.

To this class of objects seem to belong corporeal nature in general and its extension; the figure of extended things, their quantity or magnitude, and their number, as also the place in, and the time during, which they exist, and other things of the same sort.

We will not, therefore, perhaps reason illegitimately if we conclude from this that physics, Astronomy, Medicine, and all the other sciences that have for their end the consideration of composite objects, are indeed of a doubtful character; but that Arithmetic, Geometry, and the other sciences of the same class, which regard merely the simplest and most general objects, and scarcely inquire whether or not these are really existent, contain somewhat that is certain and indubitable: for whether I am awake or dreaming, it remains true that two and three make five, and that a square has but four sides; nor does it seem possible that truths so apparent can ever fall under a suspicion of falsity [or incertitude].

Nevertheless, the belief that there is a God who is all powerful, and who created me, such as I am, has, for a long time, obtained steady possession of my mind. How, then, do I know that he has not arranged that there should be neither earth, nor sky, nor any extended thing, nor figure, nor magnitude, nor place, providing at the same time, however, for [the rise in me of the perceptions of all these objects, and] the persuasion that these do not exist otherwise than as I perceive them? And further, as I sometimes think that others are in error respecting matters of which they believe themselves to possess a perfect knowledge, how do I know that I am not also deceived each time I add together two and three, or number the sides of a square, or form some judgment still more simple, if more simple indeed can be imagined? But perhaps Deity has not been willing that I should be thus deceived, for he is said to be supremely good. If, however, it were repugnant to the goodness of Deity to have created me subject to constant deception, it would seem likewise to be contrary to his goodness to allow me to be occasionally deceived; and yet it is clear that this is permitted.

Some, indeed, might perhaps be found who would be disposed rather to deny the existence of a being so powerful than to believe that there is nothing certain. But let us for the present refrain from opposing this opinion, and grant that all which is here said of a Deity is fabulous: nevertheless, in whatever way it be supposed that I reach the state in which I exist, whether by fate, or chance, or by an endless series of antecedents and consequents, or by any other means, it is clear (since to be deceived and to err is a certain defect ) that the probability of my being so imperfect as to be the constant victim of deception, will be increased exactly in proportion as the power possessed by the cause, to which they assign my origin, is lessened. To these reasonings I have assuredly nothing to reply, but am constrained at last to avow that there is nothing of all that I formerly believed to be true of which it is impossible to doubt, and that not through thoughtlessness or levity, but from cogent and maturely considered reasons; so that henceforward, if I desire to discover anything certain, I ought not the less carefully to refrain from assenting to those same opinions than to what might be shown to be manifestly false.

But it is not sufficient to have made these observations; care must be taken
likewise to keep them in remembrance. For those old and customary opinions perpetually recur– long and familiar usage giving them the right of occupying my mind, even almost against my will, and subduing my belief; nor will I lose the habit of deferring to them and confiding in them so long as I shall consider them to be what in truth they are, viz., opinions to some extent doubtful, as I have already shown, but still highly probable, and such as it is much more reasonable to believe than deny. It is for this reason I am persuaded that I shall not be doing wrong, if, taking an opposite judgment of deliberate design, I become my own deceiver, by supposing, for a time, that all those opinions are entirely false and imaginary, until at length, having thus balanced my old by my new prejudices, my judgment shall no longer be turned aside by perverted usage from the path that may conduct to the perception of truth. For I am assured that, meanwhile, there will arise neither peril nor error from this course, and that I cannot for the present yield too much to distrust, since the end I now seek is not action but knowledge.

I will suppose, then, not that Deity, who is sovereignly good and the fountain of truth, but that some malignant demon, who is at once exceedingly potent and deceitful, has employed all his artifice to deceive me; t will suppose that the sky, the air, the earth, colors, figures, sounds, and all external things, are nothing better than the illusions of dreams, by means of which this being has laid snares for my credulity; I will consider myself as without hands, eyes, flesh, blood, or any of the senses, and as falsely believing that I am possessed of these; I will continue resolutely fixed in this belief, and if indeed by this means it be not in my power to arrive at the knowledge of truth, I shall at least do what is in my power, viz., [ suspend my judgment ], and guard with settled purpose against giving my assent to what is false, and being imposed upon by this deceiver, whatever be his power and artifice. But this undertaking is arduous, and a certain indolence insensibly leads me back to my ordinary course of life; and just as the captive, who, perchance, was enjoying in his dreams an imaginary liberty, when he begins to suspect that it is but a vision, dreads awakening, and conspires with the agreeable illusions that the deception may be prolonged; so I, of my own accord, fall back into the train of my former beliefs, and fear to arouse myself from my slumber, lest the time of laborious wakefulness that would succeed this quiet rest, in place of bringing any light of day, should prove inadequate to dispel the darkness that will arise from the difficulties that have now been raised.

MEDITATION II – Of the nature of the human mind; and that it is more easily known than the body

The Meditation of yesterday has filled my mind with so many doubts, that it is no longer in my power to forget them. Nor do I see, meanwhile, any principle on which they can be resolved; and, just as if I had fallen all of a sudden into very deep water, I am so greatly disconcerted as to be unable either to plant my feet firmly on the bottom or sustain myself by swimming on the surface. I will, nevertheless, make an effort, and try anew the same path on which I had entered yesterday, that is, proceed by casting aside all that admits of the slightest doubt, not less than if I had discovered it to be absolutely false; and I will continue always in this track until I shall find something that is certain, or at least, if I can do nothing more, until I shall know with certainty that there is nothing certain. Archimedes, that he might transport the entire globe from the place it occupied to another, demanded only a point that was firm and immovable; so, also, I shall be entitled to entertain the highest expectations, if I am fortunate enough to discover only one thing that is certain and indubitable. I suppose, accordingly, that all the things which I see are false (fictitious); I believe that none of those objects which my fallacious memory represents ever existed; I suppose that I possess no senses; I believe that body, figure, extension, motion, and place are merely fictions of my mind. What is there, then, that can be esteemed true ? Perhaps this only, that there is absolutely nothing certain.

But how do I know that there is not something different altogether from the objects I have now enumerated, of which it is impossible to entertain the slightest doubt? Is there not a God, or some being, by whatever name I may designate him, who causes these thoughts to arise in my mind ? But why suppose such a being, for it may be I myself am capable of producing them? Am I, then, at least not something?

But I before denied that I possessed senses or a body; I hesitate, however, for what follows from that? Am I so dependent on the body and the senses that without these I cannot exist? But I had the persuasion that there was absolutely nothing in the world, that there was no sky and no earth, neither minds nor bodies; was I not, therefore, at the same time, persuaded that I did not exist? Far from it; I assuredly existed, since I was persuaded. But there is I know not what being, who is possessed at once of the highest power and the deepest cunning, who is constantly employing all his ingenuity in deceiving me. Doubtless, then, I exist, since I am deceived; and, let him deceive me as he may, he can never bring it about that I am nothing, so long as I shall be conscious that I am something. So that it must, in fine, be maintained, all things being maturely and carefully considered, that this proposition (pronunciatum ) I am, I exist, is necessarily true each time it is expressed by me, or conceived in my mind.